Women in Masculine Jobs: Capturing Lived Experiences of Women in Sales Occupation.
| Author | Vahia, Manasi |
Introduction
More and more women are enrolling in paid work across the globe through social, economic and developmental agendas. Sustainable Development Goal No. 5 aims to achieve gender equality across nations and organizations (ILO, 2016). In spite of these initiatives, India is listed in the bottom 20 among 156 countries in Global Gender Gap Index (GGI) (World Economic Forum, 2021). India's Female Labor Force Participation (FLFP) has been slipping from 36.78% in 2005 to 18.6% in 2020. Females comprise 48.02% of the world's second most populous country, India. Thus, more than half of the unrealised talent base is under-utilised due to challenges in workforce integration, socio-economic and cultural factors (Bank, 2022; Chaudhary & Verick, 2014; Lahoti & Swaminathan, 2016; Menon et al., 2019). Women are getting employed but in lowest-paid occupations (Anker, 1997; Anker et al., 2003; ILO, 2016; Zahidi et al., 2018). The gender gap is then not only in employment but also in quality of jobs that females are joining.
ILO indicates that sex-segregation in occupations are changing (ILO, 2016; 2018), more women are joining ' Shop and market sales workers' occupation. (Chakraborty, 2016; India & National Statistical Office, 2019; Ministry of Labor & Employment, 2015). The space thus created for females in non-traditional occupations, opens a box of opportunities as well as challenges. This research explores these opportunities and challenges for females in the occupation of sales. Why Sales? This function enables the transit of products and services to customers, generates revenue making it a crucial part of business. Professional selling posits a career for women wherein they can earn more, have a great deal of autonomy and a high level of training (Catalyst, 1995; Fugate et al., 1988; Gable & Reed, 1987; Morgan & Martin, 2006; Shoreibah et al., 2019). Challenges of working in this occupation surface in traveling arrangements, power-sharing, and sex-role stereotyping (Collinson & Collinson, 1996; Heilman & Okimoto, 2007; Hoogendoorn et al., 2013; Lane, 2000; Lane & Crane, 2002; Shoreibah et al., 2019). Researchers have examined the role of organization's HR policies and processes in hiring and retaining women (Barbulescu & Bidwell, 2013; Cohen et al., 1998). But these studies have missed netting the female incumbents' perspectives who are exposed to a myriad of experiences in the sales occupation. These issues are captured in this research.
Why Is This Research?
'Occupational segregation by sex occurs everywhere, causing labor market rigidity and economic inefficiency, wasting human resources, preventing change, disadvantaging women, and perpetuating gender inequalities'(Anker, 1997; Blau & Jusenius, 1976; Siltanen et al., 1995). By exploring the lived experiences of women in one sex-segregated occupation of Sales, the dynamics that make it difficult for females to occupy and sustain therein have been epitomized. This research attempts to look from inside out--a perspective that will enable women, teams, organizations and connected social circles understand why women find it difficult to sustain in an occupation where they are a minority.
Research Questions
The research explores how women manage any potential conflict between the 'masculine' occupation and emergent gender dimensions. The following research questions are explored:
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How do participants describe their life in the male dominant occupation of sales?
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What forms of support are available to help them endure in the sales occupation?
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What are the coping mechanisms and mitigation methods that women deploy in overcoming challenges?
Literature Review
Why segregate? As humans we have a tendency to categorize things in order to organize, make things/ people/ locations, etc. identifiable, and make us comfortable in the notion that by doing so, we are more scientific in methods. But, when these categorizations become silos that have none or very limited access to each other, they create dark and delineating borders. Occupational sex segregation is an outcome of such classifications. Gender theories provide the principal explanation for existence and persistence of segmentation in occupations basis worker's sex.
Gender Theories
'Segregation' is the tendency for men and women to be employed in different occupations (Siltanen et al., 1995). Male and female jobs are used to describe occupations that are disproportionately and predominantly, but generally not entirely, performed by persons of one sex (England, 1982). Male-dominated/masculine occupations are those that occupy 25% or fewer women and vice-versa (De Mel et al., 2009; Hegewisch et al., 2010). Occupational segregation occurs both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal segregation is the disparate concentration of men and women across industries, occupations, employment spread across formal and informal sectors. Vertical segregation is disparity in social status, positions, or potential for promotion (Charles, 2003; Das & Kotikula, 2019).
It has been a belief that both sexes are adept at one or the other things and they don't overlap. For instance, women are often seen as caregivers and gatherers purportedly in supportive roles, whereas males as hunters earning the bread.
Evolutionary researchers attribute such categorization to an individual's biological sex which can be distinguished on the basis of reproductive organs, hormones, gonads etc. (Kelly, 2016; Messing, 1982; Risman & Davis, 2013). The term sex instead of gender is hence used to distinguish between physiological characteristics.
But, gender has more psychological, social, and cultural context rather than limiting to evolution. Social constructionism theorizes that gender is constructed socially and is maintained in agreement amongst the members of a given culture (Lawson & Lips, 2014). Both sexes are socialized into dichotomous normative behavior by extended social members.
Social role theory explains how requirements in roles reinforce the qualities, thereby sustaining gendered division of labor. Each imbibes what they practice, and hence get stereotyped in the roles occupied (Eagly & Wood, 2012; 2016). Selection in occupations and other roles are a function of such stereotypes embedded in society. As an analogy, occupations such as nursing (requiring compassion) are viewed as feminine and doctors (higher order skills) as masculine, thereby gendering this division in labor. Such a static gendered socialization results in gender stereotypes and gendered roles. (Barbulescu & Bidwell, 2013; Charles, 2003; Eagly & Wood, 2016).
When individuals incorporate these social, cultural expectations and meanings associated with a person's sex into their self-concept, gender becomes part of their identities. Individuals identify themselves and act in relation to the socially induced, self-defined gendered meanings ascribed to their sex (Eagly & Wood, 2016; Ely, 1995; Fiennes, 2009; Wendy & Eagly, 2010).
Demand and supply-oriented theories explain availability of occupations and stereotyping of jobs leading to employer discrimination in providing entry to women in occupations (Beller Andrea., 1982; Bergmann, 1981; Blau & Jusenius, 1976; Ellmeier et al., 2011; Polachek, 1981). For instance, employers preferences for hiring men/women change according to jobs requiring different time allotments such as extended working hours, night-shift, flexible working hours or conversely women choosing the occupation for balancing work...
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