Social Security for Unorganized Workers in India: Still a Long Journey Ahead.

Introduction

Keith Hart pioneered the research on informal work in urban Ghana that was comparable with a study in the USA. The informal sector is a group of production units comprising unincorporated enterprises owned by households, including informal own-account enterprises (15th ICLS, 1993). The Indian Central Statistical Organization uses the terms organized and unorganized instead of "formal" and "informal" sectors. Unorganized enterprises are simply those that are not subject to the tax regime, the GDP calculation, or any fixed terms of employment. The 17th International Conference of Labor Statisticians defines informality as all remunerative activities through self-and wage employment that are neither registered nor regulated by the existing regulatory framework. Another employment-based definition recommended by WIEGO includes all employers of informal enterprises, all wage workers in informal establishments, and self-employed individuals rather than professionals and technicians. It is pertinent to note that the National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector (NCEUS) has extensively referred to the concepts and results of the NSS survey on employment and unemployment. NCEUS, with reference to the sectoral association and legal framework, categorizes work into four categories, such as (a) formal employment in the formal or organized sector, (b) informal employment in the formal sector, (c) formal employment in the informal sector, and (d) informal employment in the informal sector. There is often a hazy frontier between the formal and informal sectors as they overlap within the economy; hence, the enterprise approach may not be relevant to analyze informality in developing countries (Bonnet et al., 2019).

The relevance of social security is acclaimed globally as the first Sustainable Development Goal that seeks to end poverty by implementing collective social welfare programs and social protection floors at the national level. The International Labor Organization (1984) has given the underlying definition of social security as the system a society furnishes through appropriate organizations against certain risks to which members are exposed. In the context of different regions, jurisdictions, and economies, the nomenclature of social security has always been changing. Social security is a controversial and dynamic subject with various dimensions such as philosophical, humanitarian, financial, administrative, social, economic, political, statistical, actuarial, medical, and legal; furthermore, there is no universally accepted definition. In European countries, it refers to government-managed income protection programs that are more contributory in nature, assisting beneficiaries in the event of work and economic contingencies. In the USA, the federal government sponsors certain social insurance schemes for different sections that are referred to as "social security." In modern times, Germany was the first country to implement a retirement plan in 1889, followed by a workers' health insurance program. The pension movement, amplified by the Great Depression of 1929, compelled the US government to adopt the Social Security Act of 1935. Social security was emphasized after the Beveridge Committee Report recommended social provision that was primarily restricted to children's allowances, comprehensive health and rehabilitation services, and the maintenance of employment.

In developing countries, social security is more costly and challenging as it covers all those pro-poor policy measures implemented through public means rather than only economic security (Dreze & Sen, 1989). In welfare states without a right-based approach to investment in health, education, and skills, people will not prosper. Many countries face challenges in reconciling issues like economic and financial affordability, transparency, individual equity, social efficiency, evaluation, and the integration of benefits and services to ensure sustainable social security measures (ILO, 2005). In the Indian context, social security encompasses three distinct but essential components: promotion, prevention, and protection. Promotional measures operate at the macroeconomic level and are focused on the poor to boost their real income, endowment, and social consumption. State-funded programs like nutrition, primary education, and basic health facilities are some of those kinds. Prevention measures target the deprived sections to eradicate social evils (e.g., poverty, malnutrition, and unemployment). Additionally, land distribution, food security, and employment generation programs are meant to protect the interests of some segments of the population. Protective measures are highly targeted and action-oriented safety nets for the destitute elderly, widowed, and disabled who require specific provisions as a result of external shocks and contingencies such as the death of their primary breadwinner. Although notable development has been initiated to extend social security in India, the overarching social policies have limited scope to safeguard the actual needs of truly vulnerable groups (Dreze & Khera, 2017). A large body of literature has investigated the efficacy of comprehensive social policies in India through the lenses of public welfare measures and, more recently, universal social protection with allied state interventions (Sarkar, 2004; Mahmood, 2010; Mishra, 2014; Jha & Pankaj, 2021). Our attempt in this study is to expand the discourse on social security for a large number of working poor in non-standard forms of employment. The design and implementation of various social security provisions in India encounter structural and pragmatic setbacks.

Social Security for Unorganized Workers in India

In the Pre-independence Period: In the Vedic monarchy, the kings were guided by a council of ministers, public opinion, and most essentially by dharma (denotes various designations, e.g., obligations, conventions, principles, morals, and standards) to safeguard the civil, legal, and economic interests of people. As the Vedic texts affirm, the king's glory lies in the happiness of his subjects, upholding the reverence and rights of every individual worker without any form of oppression and discrimination. According to the Mahabharata, Dharma even authorizes subjects to revolt against the king's callousness if the king fails to fulfil his raj-dharma (civil obligations of a king) and apad-dharma (obligations to discharge duties during a crisis). The Gita strongly recites the broader role of the ruler of the state, which is to arrange the social welfare of the people beyond his material gains. Furthermore, people should help their fellow beings because Kalyan, Mangal, and Bhadram represent society's shared values and motivation. As illustrated in the Kathopnishad, although there were no systematic welfare arrangements, there were several instances of community efforts, sometimes jointly organized by the king and beneficiaries, leading to the common goods of members (Radhakrishnan, 2008). Kautilya's Arthasastra illustrates the accountability of the king to provide livelihood maintenance and financial assistance for the orphans, the aged, the widowed, and each needy individual with state funding and machinery. Sensible kings used to take timely steps to confront economic uncertainties caused by natural disasters, realizing the importance of preventive public policies. India under British rule has experienced meagre development on the ground in terms of social policy and economic security. Buddhism also sets a high standard of moral character for the king, which can mold the lives of the common people in society (Ambedkar, 1987). As a virtue of wisdom, love, sympathy, and patronage should be manifested for all suffering beings, not only by the king but also by any privileged one. Although the social security in ancient times we discussed above certainly did not match with modern-day practices, the doctrine of social protection was noteworthy.

Post--independence Times: Modern social policies are heavily influenced by the European and American social security models, which are intertwined with India's colonial history. The evolution of social security laws in India has moved from economic security of a specified working class to universal social protection through the provision of food, education, and livelihood through state-sponsored measures. In modern India, a few laws have been enacted in accordance with the conventions and recommendations of the...